Narrative Theory

A key part of a short film is the narrative. As I only have a short amount of time to convey the meaning/story that I want my text to have I need to understand some narrative theory, to develop a grounding in storytelling and what the main elements and ideas are about narrative.

Table of Content

Introduction

Syntagmatic Structures

Paradigmatic Structures

Alternative Narrative: Art Cinema

Modular Narratives

Introduction

Key Terms.

• Narrative: “A chain of events in a cause-effect relationship occurring in time” (Bordwell & Thompson, Film Art, 1980).
• Chronology: The order of time.
• Causality: The relationship between cause and effect.

Russian Theorist, Viktor Shklovsky, distinguished between the story and plot of a narrative. He Used the following terms:

• Fabula (Story): The chronological order of events, all events referenced both explicitly in a narrative and inferred (including backstory as well as those projected beyond the action).
• Syuzhet (Plot): The structured events as they are presented to the audience. (The order in which the events are presented)

Most narratives are structured chronologically, often describe as linear or classic narrative. The Greek philosopherm Aristotle observed that all narratives have; a Beginning, Middle and End - this is the linear narrative.

Linear or Classic Narrative

Types of structures

• Open structure: The audience are left to wonder what happens next – use their own initiative. The French Theorist, Roland Barthes would say these texts could be interpreted in a multitude of ways
• Closed structure: Has a clear ending and conclusion. This kind of narrative is much more straightforward, and would only be interpreted in a limited number of ways.
• Circular structure: The narrative begins at the end events, and takes the audience on a journey back through the narrative, back to where they started again, at the end. For example The Sixth Sense & Pulp fiction.

Narrative Range

• Unrestricted narration: A narrative which has no limits to the information that is presented i.e. a news bulletin.
• Restricted narration: Only offers minimal information regarding the narrative i.e. thrillers.

Narrative Depth

• Subjective character identification: The viewer is given unique access to what arrange of characters see and do
• Objective character identification: The viewer is given unique access to a character’s point of view such as seeing things from the character’s mind, dreams, fantasies or memories.

Syntagmatic Structures (Follow the order of events in a narrative)

Tzvetan Todorov's Structural Theory 
Todorov argues that a story begins with a particular state of affairs, then somethings happens to disrupt this state, and events finally close with a new state being reached. He broke his theory down into five distinct stages:

1. Equilibrium or normality.
2. Disruption of the equilibrium.
3. Recognition of the disruption.
4. Attempts to repair the disruption.
5. Return to equilibrium/normality.

Stages 2, 3 and 4 may be repeated many times over before we reach the final stage of equilibrium.

Vladimir Propp’s Theory of Narrative
Propp was a Russian critic and folklorist. Propp based his work on Russian fairytales and therefore it can be argued that his theory can not and does not apply to a media text. Also many consider Propp's theory is out of date with the modern age and will need to be updated for a modern narrative.

He grouped characters and actions in a narratives into eight character roles or 'Spheres of action' they are as follows: (Examples based on Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets)

• Hero: Traditionally the male protagonist whose role it is to restore normality or equilibrium, defeating any villains and winning the love of the heroine. Harry Potter
• Villain: The cause of the disruption and the antithesis of the hero, possibly also a threat to the safety and virtue of the heroine. Tom Riddle (Lord Voldmort)
• Dispatcher: This character sends the hero on his journey to restore equilibrium. Moaning Myrtle
• Father: Gives the task to the hero, identifies the false hero, often sought for during the narrative. Professor Albus Dumbledore
• Donor: Gives the hero something to help him on his journey. Fawkes the Phoenix
• Helper: Assists the hero in restoring equilibrium. Ron Weasley / Hermione Granger / Dobby
• Heroine: Usually a passive and vulnerable character, threatened by the villain and needing rescuing by the hero. Ginny Weasley
• False Hero: A character who initially seems to be on the side of the hero but who turns against him or deceives him. Professor Gilderoy Lockhart 

After the initial situation (equilibrium) is depicted, the tale takes the following sequence of 31 functions:

	Function	Description
	Initial Situation	Member of family and/or hero introduced.
Preparation
1	Abstention	One of the members of the family leaves home.
2	Interdiction	An interdiction (prohibition or decree) is addressed to the hero.
3	Violation	The interdiction is violated.
4	Reconnaissance	The villain makes an attempt at reconnaissance.
5	Delivery	The villain receives information about his victim.
6	Trickery	The villain attempts to deceive his victim.
7	Complicity	The villain submits to deception, unwittingly helping his enemy.
Complication
8	Villainy	The villain causes harm or injury to a member of the family.
	OR lack	One member of the family lacks or want something.
9	Mediation	The misfortune is made known and the hero is sent on his quest.
10	Counteraction	The hero agrees to counteraction.
Transference
11	Departure	The hero leaves home.
12	1st function of Donor	The hero is tested.
13	Hero's reaction	The hero reacts to actions of future donor.
14	Receipt of magical agent	The hero acquires use of magical agent.
15	Spatial transference	The hero is led to object of search.
Struggle
16	Struggle	The hero and villain join in direct combat.
17	Branding	The hero is branded (injured).
18	Victory	The villain is defeated.
19	Liquidation	Initial Misfortune or lack is liquidated (brought to an end).
Return
20	Return	The hero returns.
21	Pursuit	A chase: the hero is pursued.
22	Rescue	The hero is rescued
23	Unrecognised arrival	The hero arrives unrecognised at home or in a strange place.
24	Unfounded claims	A false hero presents unfounded claims.
25	Difficult task	A difficult task is proposed to the hero.
26	Solution	The task is resolved.
Recognition
27	Recognition	The hero is recognised.
28	Exposure	The false hero or villain is exposed.
29	Transfiguration	The hero is given a new appearance.
30	Punishment	The villain is punished.
31	Wedding	The hero is married and ascends the throne.

Paradigmatic Structures (The vertical structures within the text)

Claude Levi-Strauss' Paradigmatic Structures 
Levi-Strauss looked at narrative structure in terms of binary oppositions. Binary oppositions are sets of opposite values whichreveal the structure of media texts. Levi -Strausswas not so interested in looking at the order in which events were arranged in the plot. Instead he looked for deeper arrangements of themes. For example, Science Fiction films can be identified a series of a binary oppositions which are created by the narrative. Here are some examples of binary oppositions:

Hero	Villain
Good	Evil
Native	Outsider
Love	Hate
Handsome	Ugly
Peace	War
Civilised	Savage
Democracy	Dictatorship
Young	Old
Humanity	Technology

Roland Bartes's Narrative Codes
Barthes outlined five codes that define the narrative. These codes act as clues for the audience, encouraging them to find answers and predict outcomes. The five codes are as follows:

Hermeneutic or enigma code: Narratives set up puzzles to be solved. These enigmas or puzzles involve the audience in the narrative and help to create interest and anticipation. In most cases the audience will find out the answer to these enigmas and this will contribute to their enjoyment of the overall resolution.

Proairetic or action code: This code also relates to progression in the narrative and involves the codes of behaviour or actions that lead the audience to expect certain consequences, based on their experiences of other film narratives. For example, when a cowboy enters a saloon and takes his gun from its holster, this leads the audience to believe that someone will be shot.

Semic or semantic code: This code involves the connotative meaning of characters, objects or settings that the audience learn to 'read' through their experience of narratives. In a similar way, the audience learn from experience that a handsome man in a film narrative will probably be the hero, and that a disfigured character is likely to be evil. Iconographic features of a text work in the same way, as the audience read objects and make links with genre, for example, a space ship will suggest science fiction.

Symbolic code: This code relates to symbolic features of a text that signify oppositions and antitheses that exist in a narrative (binary oppositions), such as good/evil, light/dark, civilised/savage.

Cultural, or referential, code: This code refers to the world outside the text, and the knowledge that we commonly share and bring to the text to understand its meaning.

Joseph Campbell - Monomyth and archetypes

Monomyth

After comparing the myths, legends and religions of various cultures, Joseph Campbell observed that most narratives follow a common pattern of the mythic hero quest, journey or monomyth.

Stages of the hero’s journey:

Departure, separation

• World of common day
• Call to adventure
• Refusal of the call
• Supernatural aid
• Crossing the first threshold
• Belly of the whale

Descent, initiation, penetration

• Road of trials
• Meeting with the goddess
• Woman as temptress
• Atonement with the father
• Apotheosis
• The ultimate boon

Return

• The refusal of the return
• The magic flight
• Rescue from within
• Closing the threshold
• Return
• Master of the two worlds
• Freedom to live

Archetypes

Character archetypes

• Hero (Arthur, Theseus, Simba)
• Shadow (Scar, Minotaur, Voldermort)
• Outcast (Cain, Ancient Mariner)
• Devil figure (Lucifer, Anakin/Darth Vader)
• Wise old man (Merlin, Rafiki, Yoda, Dumbledore)
• Woman figure:
• Earth mother (Mother Nature)
• Temptress (Eve, Sirens, Delilah)
• Platonic ideal (Dante's Beatrice)
• Unfaithful wife (Anna Karenina, Madame Bovary)

Situation archetypes

• Quest (Holy Grail, Ahab)
• Initiation (Huck Finn, Stand by Me)
• Fall (Paradise Lost, Darth Vader)
• Death and Rebirth (Christ, Hercules)

Archetypal symbols

• Light / Darkness
• Water / Desert
• Heaven / Hell

Christopher Vogler - 12 stages and archetypes

Vogler developed and simplified Campbell’s stages of the hero’s & heroine (adapted from Maureen Murdock) journey and he emphasises importance of mythic structure and mythic archetypes

Vogler’s 12 Stages of The Hero’s Journey

1. Ordinary world.
2. Call to adventure.
3. Refusal of the call.
4. Meeting with the mentor.
5. Crossing the first threshold.
6. Tests, allies, enemies.
7. Approach to the inmost cave.
8. Supreme ordeal.
9. Reward (seizing the sword).
10. The road back.
11. Resurrection.
12. Return with the elixir.

Vogler’s 10 Stage of The Heroine's Journey 

1. Separation from the feminine.
2. Identification with the masculine & gathering of allies.
3. Road of trials, meeting ogres & dragons.
4. Finding the boon of success.
5. Awakening to feelings of spiritual aridity: death.
6. Initiation & descent to the goddess.
7. Urgent yearning to reconnect with the feminine.
8. Healing the mother/daughter split.
9. Healing the wounded masculine.
10. Integration of masculine & feminine.

Vogler’s Archetypes and their Functions

• Heroes: Central figures in stories. 
• Shadows: Villains and enemies, perhaps the enemy within. 
• Mentors: The hero’s guide or guiding principles.
• Herald: One who brings the Call to Adventure.  
• Threshold Guardians: The forces that stand in the way at important turning points.
• Shape Shifters: In stories, creatures like vampires or werewolves who change shape.  In life, the shapeshifter represents change. 
• Tricksters: Clowns and mischief-makers.  Our own mischievous subconscious, urging us to change.
• Allies: Characters who help the hero through the change. 

Alternative Narrative: Art Cinema

David Bordwell - Art Cinema's Form of Narration

David Bordwell has identified a distinctive form of narration in art cinema. He emphasises the ways in which art cinema diverges from classical Hollywood narrative and narration to achieve much more ambiguity than is normally found in mainstream cinema.

• The main protagonist does not have clear-cut goals or discernible motives.
• There is not always a clear cause and effect relationship between events.
• The operation of chance is often important.
• Screen time is often used without driving the narrative forward.
• There is no guarantee that all the loose ends of the narrative will be tied up.

Modular Narratives

Allan Cameron - Modular Narratives in Contemporary Cinema
Modular Narratives “articulate a sense of time as divisible and subject to manipulation”.

Cameron has identified four different types of modular narrative:

• Anachronic
• Forking Paths
• Episodic
• Split Screens

Anachronic: Involve the use of flashbacks and/or flashforwards, with no clear dominance between any of the narrative threads. These narratives also often repeat scenes directly or via a different perspective.

Forking-path: Juxtapose alternative versions of a story, showing the possible outcomes that might result from small changes in a single event or group of events. The forking-path narrative introduces a number of plot lines that usually contradict one another.

Episodic: Organised as an abstract series or narrative anthology. Abstract series type of modular narrative is characterised by the operation of a non-narrative formal system which appears to dictate the organisation of narrative elements such as a sequence of numbers or the alphabet. Anthology consists of a series of shorter tales which are apparently disconnected but share a random similarity, such as all ‘episodes’ being survivors of a shipwreck.

Split screen: Different from the other types of modular narrative discussed here, because their modularity is articulated along spatial rather than temporal lines. These films divide the screen into two or more frames, juxtaposing events within the same visual field, in a sustained fashion.

References

Books
Rehahn, E. (2006). Narrative in Film and TV. Auteur

Nicholas, J., Price, J. (1998). Advanced Studies in Media. Nelson

Mark, J., Angela, B., Danny, R. (2005). Advanced Level Media: Second Edition. Hodder & Stoughton 

Website

Narrative Theory. [Online] docs.google. Available from: https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B11Esdv8Jur6WVlVR0F2Nloxb3c/edit# [Accessed 25 June 2012].
(2012). Vladimir Propp. [Online] Wikipedia. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Propp [Accessed 26 June 2012].

Thrasher, J. (2008). Narrative Theory Notes. [Online] Scribd. Available from: http://www.scribd.com/doc/8332523/Narrative-theory-notes  [Accessed 26 June 2012].

(2006). Approaches To Narrative Theory. [Online] Slide Share. Available from: http://www.slideshare.net/aelialicinia/approaches-to-narrative-theory [Accessed 26 June 2012].

(2009). Narrative Theory. [Online] Slide Share. Available from: http://www.slideshare.net/guest9e3b3b/narrative-theory-2104298 [Accessed 26 June 2012].

Wilson, K. (2000-2011). Narrative. [Online] Scribd. Available from: http://www.mediaknowall.com/as_alevel/alevkeyconcepts/alevelkeycon.php?pageID=narrative [Accessed 27 June 2012].

Hero's Journey. [Online] The Writers Journey. Available from: http://www.thewritersjourney.com/hero's_journey.htm [Accessed 27 June 2012].